A Situation Analysis Document Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Situation Analysis Document - Research Paper Example Budget is also operating in the U.S as the leader of truck rental providers. The company’s vision statement portrays company’s image as a leader in rental car industry providing value to its customers through efficiency, focusing on its people for continuous improvement and innovation and sustaining promising growth in the future. According to Avis Budget group these parameters are way to success and can be only met if Avis and Budget continue working together rather than being individual. The company’s mission statement is to continuously provide sustaining growth and customer satisfaction in the long run through leadership and support for worldwide recognized and top notch brands. They seek to provide quality services driven by each brand in category for sustainable competitive advantage (Avis Budget Group). Company’s distinct values include commitment, integrity and responsibility. The company is always committed to provide value to its corporate clients and customers via its service excellence, high quality unique and powerful brands, leadership and support. The company maintains its integrity in establishing professional relationships with the clients and customers, value them, and nurture them through trust and loyalty. Open system of communication and compatible teamwork of diverse people further enhances its integrity. The company is yet socially responsible and performs all measure to portray itself as a sensible citizen caring for environment. The company is dedicated to making timely decisions with 360 degrees framework, feeling responsible for the interest of stakeholders and other investors and continues to excel towards profitability and growth keeping that in mind. According to the annual report form 10-K of Avis Budget Group the performance indicators for measuring company’s financial position have been showing a very positive trend. Comparing the last two years

Quantitative and Qualitative Comparative Approaches

Quantitative and Qualitative Comparative Approaches Comparative Education What Are the Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative and Qualitative Comparative Approaches? Introduction Virtually it is impossible for comparison not to exist, since it is a major part of human nature. Anything that exists and can be thought about has the potential to be compared. Swansen (1971: 145) stated that THINKING WITHOUT comparison is unthinkable, so is all scientific thought and scientific research. When the term comparative approach is used in the general sense it is a vital attribute in the field of social scientific methodology. In the general sense it may be assumed that all social scientific methods are comparative. However, in the field of sociology the term is more restricted to the explicit study and comparison of different societies; in an effort to determine the alike and different attributes of the societies (Eastthope 1974). However, some researches in this field of study have developed the position over the years that there is no uniqueness about this field of inquiry. One such researcher is Smelser (1976) who indicated that there is no separate goal recognised by comparative and non comparative researcher because they both describe societal trends by creating limitations over situations and case variants that occur in those trends. Ragin (1989), however, maintained that the comparative approach is a distinctive field because it can be characterised as having an undeviating experiential functioning of the nonfigurative notion of society that has a high level of notions. Based on this, Ragin stated that this is what differentiates compartivists and non- comparativits. Therefore it may be assumed that the comparative approach involves the studying of one society and comparing it to more than one case (society) based on their societal factors such as culture, politics, etc., and determining their similari ties and differences and attributing them to why phenomenon exists in the society being analysed. There are two major methods that researchers can apply when they conduct comparative research. These two approaches are called the comparative quantitative and comparative qualitative approaches. Therefore, in this essay I will be discussing the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative comparative approaches. However, firstly I will conceptualise the term comparative approach within the tradition of social science and then I will define discuss the consequences this has for education. Reference will then be made the three stages the comparative approach evolved in education and the major principles that the comparative approach is hinged on. The qualitative and quantitative comparative approaches will then be defined; their features and functions, advantages and disadvantages will be discussed. I will then discuss what the best approach the comparative approach is; then I will finally be discussing the consequences that the comparative approach has for education. Conceptualising the Comparative Approach In the broad field of sociology the comparative approach may be defined as relating to a type of evaluation that contrasts one ideology or investigative plan aligned with others. It may have a possibility of being replaced by another one that can be used to explicate the same others that would explain the same common trend (Gerring 2008). Furthermore, Keaty (2008) stated that the comparative approach is the primary scientific process existing, that an individual can utilise to control theories and analyse the correlations of more than one variable, while maintaining all invariance that can latently alter factors. The main purpose of the comparative approach in this field of study is to construct a justification of worldwide trends that are common to these societies but also allows researchers to analyse the more intricate trends of a society Ragain (1987). Therefore, it may be assumed that through the use of the comparative approach researches are capable of distinguishing that a sou nd empirical elucidation is pertinent to a diverse number of situations, however it still provides the researcher the opportunity to identify that societal trends are multifaceted and that a broad rationalisation is an incomplete rationalisation. Ragin (1989) further purported that the comparative approach is a rational approach and as a result it is hinged on John Stuart Mills (1888) principles of inductive inquiry. John Stuart Mills (1888) as cited in Etzioni and Du Bow (1970) called these three principles are called method of agreement, method of difference and the indirect method of difference. The method of agreement may be explained as if two or more cases of the occurrence that is being examined have one condition that is similar, it is assumed that this condition in which all the occurrence concur, is the origin of the specified trend. Therefore in order for an occurrence to be necessary it must occur in each situation (206-208). Furthermore, it may be assumed that in this instance the comparativits would be concerned with investigating situations where the condition can be identified and therefore by default conditions that are not recorded would not be necessary for the occurrence(s) to transpire. The method of agreement that Mills (1888), as noted in Etzioni and Du Bow (1970), formulated may be explained as if an occurrence in which the trend under analysis takes place, and an occurrence in which it does not transpire, and the occurrence is the equivalent one should be reserved, that one taking place before; the condition(s) and the two cases that are different may be termed as the effect or a vital aspect of what caused the trend to take place. The final method that Mill (1888) defined, that the comparative approach is grounded on, is the indirect method of agreement. This method Mills indirect method of difference is the use of the method of agreement twice (208-210). Researchers draft cross tabulations in an effort to establish if trends are existent and if the result present/present or absent/absent then the notion can be maintained. When compartivists apply this method it has three major steps these are: the dual employment of the indirect method of difference and the step which is related to the elimination of challenging single elements of clarification through opposite comparisons. However, when the comparative approach is applied in education it may be defined as being a combination of pedagogy and the social sciences. The comparative approach in education deals with the structure and purpose a school serves. It is suggested by Noah and Eckstein (1969) that the field of education and the social sciences have merged because researches have focused on analogous types of statistics and congruent subject matters. Furthermore, the other reason for this merger between fields is the noticeable interest in quantitative and experiential and approaches of investigation (Noah and Eckstein 1969). The application of the comparative approach in education is purposeful for four main reasons. Crossley and Watson (2004) have tried to identify these purposes. Firstly, it allows stakeholders to comprehend their own educational structure. Secondly, it provides individuals with the opportunity to also be able to comprehend other peoples educational structures, their cultures and i ts societal interactions. Thirdly, individuals would be able to recognise contrast educational structures, procedures and effects as a means of recording and comprehending the issues in education, and assistance to the development of educational guiding principles and traditions. Fourthly and finally it supports enhanced global comprehending and collaboration owing to augmented understanding to various beliefs and traditions of the world. When the comparative approach is applied in the field of education it is hinged on the various stages that evolved from. They are two major theories that are used to explain this process. According to Bereday (1964) as noted in Bray, Adamson and Mason (2007) the development of the comparative approach in education went through three steps. The first step he insinuated occurred during the 19th century and was established by Marc- Antonie Jullien the first known methodically, academic comparative educationalist. This period was referred to as borrowing. Bereday (1964) stated that during this phase great importance was focused on the categorisation of explanatory facts. After that emphasis was placed on contrasting the information collected in an effort to determine the preeminent traditions that a country was using with the purpose of implementing them in other countries. Beredays (1964) second step in the development of the comparative approach in education transpired within the firs t 50 years of the 20th century. This phase, he contended was pioneered by Sir Michael Sadler in the United Kingdom and it emphasised that educational structures are interlinked complicatedly to the nation that maintains them. Beredeys (1964) last step involved interpretation which stresses the development of the evolving of hypothesis and approaches and the apparent creation of the stages of comparative processes and strategies to assist the improvement of ideologies. According to Bereday (1964) as noted in Bray et al (2007) this modern new historical era that examined was a extension of the conventions of the phases of guessing, but it proposed that preceding guessing and ultimate borrowing is endeavoured it is essential that the subject is methodically implemented and applied to the educational policies. Comparative social science is also important in the field of comparative education. The process of borrowing and analysing educational systems across countries are very important for the existence of this field. As such, the use of the quantitative and qualitative approach is also important in comparative education research. The general field of comparative research is generally associated with applying the qualitative approach because cases have to be analysed. However, when applied in education there is a greater need for compartivists to apply the quantitative approach. This demand was brought about because of the move in focus contained in the discipline of comparative education from chronological, descriptive investigations in the direction of investigations applying arithmetical data and quantitative data analysis methods (Bray et. al 2007). The Two Approaches to Comparative Research As previously mentioned they are two major means by which researchers approach their investigations, through the application of either the quantitative or qualitative approach. In this section I will be discussing these both approaches in the broad social science field and then I will be discussing them as they are applied to the field of comparative education. According to Picciano (2004) the major differences between the both approaches when applied in education are based on the rationale of the investigation, the type of information to be collected, the method by which the collected information would be scrutinised, and how conclusions will drawn based on the findings of the collected data. For example, if a researcher wanted to investigate and understand trend that was occurring in a society the researcher may apply the qualitative approach. However, if another researcher was desirous of conducting a correlation study on students performance, they may apply the quantitative approach Quantitative Comparative Approach When the qualitative approach is applied generally, Bryman (2004) defined it as an investigative approach that typically stressed on words as opposed to the computations involved the gathering and interpretation of information. He further stated that this approach has three major features. The first feature is that it involves a deductive methodology towards the interaction connecting assumptions and investigation, in which the emphasis is situated on the examination of these assumptions. The second feature is that it integrates the systems and standards of positivism and of the natural empirical model. And thirdly it exemplifies an analysis of societal veracity as a peripheral authentic purpose Bryman (2004). The application of the qualitative approach in the social sciences is generally advantageous for four major reasons. Bryman (2004) stated that these reasons are measurement, causality, generalization and replication. Measurement is essential because it allows the researcher to define fine disparities between the cases, it is a reliable mechanism for shaping dissimilarities and it provides the foundation for further accurate educated conjectures of the level of association between notions. When the quantitative researcher is investigating a trend he or she is not interested in explaining the trend but rather in determining why the trend is occurring. When the researcher has made their final findings and conclusions there results may be able to be generalised to the whole population being researched. And finally, because of generally steps that are followed, and this method of research is void of personal biases it is objective, therefore if the researcher or any other researcher cond ucted the same research following the same steps the results yielded should be similar. Therefore this would give an indication that this approach to the social science is reliable and valid (Bryman 2004). However, they are also some disadvantageous which occur from applying the quantitative approach. Bryman (2004) has identified four major disadvantages that are generally associated with the application of this approach. Firstly he stated that researches of this approach are unsuccessful in discriminating individuals and societal organisation from the way by which people construe the world. Secondly, some individuals are of the opinion that the means by which the data is measured false belief that it is exactitude. For example, if a researcher distributed questionnaires, it is likely that some individuals may misinterpret the questions, and the answers may not be accurate. Thirdly, sometimes, the respondents may not have enough knowledge to answer the questionnaire adequately, which will result in the data not reflecting the current trend. And finally the investigation of interaction among variables produces an inert perspective of societal that is mutually dependent of individuals l ives (Bryman 2004). An example of how the quantitative approach was applied in mainstream social science was the study conducted by Chin, Fisak and Sims (2002). This study was termed Developing a Likert Scale: the case of attitudes to vegetarians. This study was used to investigate the behaviours of vegetarians who were said to be abnormal and as a consequence were considered with scepticism and resentment. As a result, the study conducted on a sample of undergraduate students of a university from the United States. There scale sought to answer four major questions. These questions were based on the type (s) of behaviours that vegetarians exhibited that was seen as offensive, discrepancy with their vegetarians ideologies, health concerns of vegetarians and how to treat them aptly. The researchers of the comparative quantitative approach also refer to this approach as the variable approach. Ragain (1989) defined this approach as being established on theory. Furthermore he opined that the qualitative comparative approach seeks to determine and analyse the association among perceptible interactions throughout various nations, and extensive hypothetically established descriptions of worldwide societal trends, as opposed to trying to comprehend explicit results. However, it must be noted that the main purpose of the quantitative comparative approach is based on establishing theories which are formulated from common assumptions as opposed to analysing historical conditions, in an attempt to create various historically results. This approach, the quantitative comparative approach has been famous for more than 25 years and its fame because there was a revamping in the concern of researching global societal phenomenon. This revamping of the field prompted researchers to inculcate the quantitative procedures from the conventional social sciences, which led to the application of the social science procedures to analyse hypotheses. The application of the quantitative approach in comparative social science has been beneficial because compartivists now have and increased authenticity and a renewed association with conventional social science (Ragin 1989). The use of the quantitative comparative approach is advantageous obviously for the same reasons mentioned for the use of the quantitative approach in mainstream social science, however Ragin (1989) has presented seven advantages that compartivists derive when they apply the quantitative comparative approach. Firstly, comparitivts are now equipped with an approach that allows them to study a large number of cases at an instant. Furthermore, it allows these researchers to increase the quantity the amount of scrutiny which does not require a great amount of knowledge of the field; despite having knowledge of the field would improve the quality of this approach. Secondly, it has stimulated a novel awareness in consistent quantitative cross-national data. This awareness is valuable because measuring permits more precise examination of the hypothesis to be achieved. Quantification of description of societal composition presents a foundation for analysing a wide range of conjectures concern ing the interaction among cases. Thirdly, it allows investigators to consider alternative explanations more carefully when testing a theory. Fourthly, comparativists now have access to information from various a large cross sections of countries data bases. Fifthly, through the application of the quantitative comparative approach, researchers have now when creating scientific generalisations; since the quantitative procedures that have been introduced are conventional like the traditional design in mainstream social science. Sixthly, it has reduced the inclination between some comparativits to appreciate specific elucidations when confronted with several contradictory situations. And finally it has given researches the opportunity to use procedures of statistical control (Ragin 1989). An example of a quantitative comparative study would be Bronschier and others (1978) study of developed countries that had an advanced level of local investment economies grew quicker. However, some individuals have criticised the quantitative comparative approach of these comparativists. Picciano (2004) has identified some major criticisms. Firstly, individuals have stated that comparativits who apply this approach has not given their subjects the opportunity to express their genuine perceptions, unlike the researchers who use the qualitative comparative approach. The quantitative comparative approach is also said to be criticised because findings from this approach tend to be void of significance. Researchers of the qualitative comparative approach also are condemned because they tend to be concerned with hypothesises which are unrelated to cases being examined, therefore this results in findings which are not truly linked to the instigative enquiries. As such, statistics are produced which is fictitious and inappropriate to distinct situations (Picciano 2004). According to Bryman (1988) and Smith (1983) as noted in Bray et al (2007) the use of quantitative comparative education in education is purposeful for the formation of principles which provide some form of clarification and forecasting of educational trends Principles of relationship maintain a practical reliance among objects, while principles that seek to determine reasons (qualitative comparative approach) entail an unchanging series of procedures. Observing this approach to the nomothetic form of analysis entails that investigators contemplate such principles to be worldwide, despite of dissimilarities that exist. Principles increases potentiality to explicate and forecast interactions among trends across circumstances. The quantitative approach is also imperative in education. These comparative educational investigators are interested in analysing in a fashion that their results would be generalised and pertinent to all the trends regardless of the nation our culture. Concurrently, there are feasible assumptions, systems, and strategies across the globe, and an aspiration to get worldwide explanations to worldwide phenomena. Major records from worldwide researches of educational accomplishment, and educational statistics collected by global organisation, can be appealing to knowledgeable and apprentice investigators similarly as a result of its accessibility. Ultimately, if the government indicates that they require the educational system a worldwide group to carry out an investigation they may require that researchers apply a more quantitative comparative approach (Bray et al 2007). Qualitative Comparative Approach When the qualitative approach is defined in mainstream social science Creswell (1998) stated that it is an investigative procedure of comprehending rooted on clear customs of inquisition that investigates a societal or human dilemma. The investigator creates a multifaceted, whole depiction, evaluates words, reports comprehensive ideologies of subjects, and performs the research in a real situation. However, he maintained that researchers who use this approach ought to conduct a quantitative research preceding it. Lincoln (1995) stated that this approach is procedure has a large concern of integrating and deducing the real subject with an effort to explain and understand trends of people. Furthermore this type of investigations uses diverse types experimental resources e.g. interview, case study, etc. When researches use the qualitative approach to conduct their investigations they are six steps that they must follow. Bryman (2001) has identified these six steps. The first step involves formulating broad investigative enquiries. The next step involves the choosing of the pertinent cases to be investigated. Thirdly, these researchers should seek to gather their pertinent information that will answer their research questions. Fourthly, the researcher has to construe the gathered information and afterwards they should seek to do some theorising. At this point the researcher has to redefine the research question, gather more information and re-interrupt the gathered information. Finally, the research can then construct their findings and conclusions. An example of the application of the qualitative approach to investigation is Taylors (1993:8) study cited in Byman (2004). This research involved the investigation of female drug users who used needles. In her study she showed that thes e women were rational active individuals who were capable of making choices rooted on the eventualities of both their drug abuse and the roles they play in society collectively. The qualitative approach in mainstream social science is advantageous. Burns (2000) has identified some advantageous of applying this approach when conducting research. Firstly, because the basis of research in this approach is not established on testing a hypothesis the investigator is provided with the opportunity to have a more intimate relationship with the subjects, and therefore a better understanding of the phenomenon being investigated. Researchers of this approach can also have a better opportunity in developing causations as it relates to trends that are occurring. Ultimately, when the findings are prepared they are not represented with numerical summaries; therefore the average person can understand the results presented (Burns 2000). However, they are four major disadvantages which can be associated with the application of the qualitative approach in mainstream social science. Firstly, the approach is too subjective, as such the results are too reliant on the investigators disorganised perceptions about what they view consequential. This approach to investigation is impossible to reproduce because it does not have any formal structure. Another criticism of this approach it that the results yielded cannot be generalised and can only be applicable to the small number of cases that were researched. Finally the whole procedure that is carried out in this approach does not clearly depict what the investigator procedures and how they made their deductions (Bryman 2001). The qualitative comparative approach is defined as an approach that compartavists use to create chronological clarification of detailed past results or previously distinct grouping of observed trends. This approach is also referred to as the case-orientated comparative method. The objective of this methodology is equally past construe and fundamental rational. Therefore, comparativits who use this method attempts to comprehend or infer explicit cases based on their inherent values. Thus the general aim is to create restricted generalisations regarding the subjects of tentatively distinct groups of experiential trends universal to a small group (Ragin 1987). They are some advantageous which can be derived from utilising the qualitative comparative approach. Ragin (1989) identified some of these advantages. Firstly, it is feasible to focus on fundamental difficulty involved in studying the cases based on attributes that create the significant societal transformation and trends that concern social scientists. Also this methodology necessitates that the researcher defers suppositions concerning the similarity of subjects and situations. This accommodation enhances the interactions between ideologies and findings. The research sample is manageable since the cases are few. Therefore these compartivists will be able to contrast the differences, and have a personal understanding of pertinent subjects (Ragin 1987). A good example of a qualitative comparative study is Marvin Harris (1978) study of sociocultural puzzles This study entailed him to studying the various views people had regarding meat from various parts of the world. He was able to explain these different ideologies of meat eating for the various regions based on cultural elucidations. They are also some disadvantages in applying the qualitative comparative approach. Picciano (2004) identified four disadvantages. Firstly, the analysis of the information is too dependent on the researcher. Furthermore, when the researcher has completed their investigation the study cannot be reproduced nor can the results be generalised for any other cases. And ultimately, since the results are not presented statistically some researchers will view the results as insufficient to provide valuable proof and furthermore being an assault to the truth. Since the qualitative approach to social to comparative method involves determining causation compartivists tend to apply comparative historical research when investigating. Mahooney and Ruechemeyer (2003) noted that this approach is a primary type of investigation that is applied in the social science. The comparative historical researchers primary interest is in enquiries which are precise to specific chronological cases. As a result of the desire to explicate these cases, frequently may result in additional research which extends beyond the initial subjects. Comparative historical analysis also involves explicating and recognising of fundamental configurations that create significant outcomes Furthermore investigators clearly examine past trends and obtains the changes over a time frame. And ultimately because comparative historical researchers typically are acquainted with all cases, they are able to they can assess variables based on theoretical analysis and legitimacy is achiev able when a reasonable number of cases are chosen (Mahooney and Ruechemeyer 2003). An example of a comparative historical study in the field of education would be Green and Wiborg (2004) study on Comprehensive Schooling and Educational Inequality: An International Perspective. Skopol and Somers (1980) have identified three approaches that can be used in comparative historical analysis. The first one is called Parallel Demonstration of Theory. The chief principle of this approach was for contrasting situations/countries past to convince the reader that a specified and described assumption can frequently reveal its effectiveness. An example of this approach is Jeffery M. Paiges study on the Agrarian Revolution. The second approach is contrasting on contexts by putting cases beside each other and more or less has a differing purpose than parallel comparative history. An example of this approach is Reinhard Bendix investigation of nation building and citizenship. Generally comparison is done between separate subjects. Typically contrasts are advanced by of the direction of assumptions. The third approach is the Macro-social Analysis. These investigators employ this style chiefly to determine causation about macro-level methods and systems. An example of this approach is Barrington Moores research on Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Skopol and Somers 1980). Mahooney (2000) also identified another approach that may be used in comparative historical analysis as path dependency. Through this approach researchers indistinctively conceptualise the past that is significant and the impacts it will have on the future. This form of investigation essentially analyses the association between sequential variables are considered, however it does not essentially scrutinise path-dependent progression of transform. However, it proposes an account for specific results of occurrences of exceptions. An example of the path-dependency approach to comparative historical analysis is Jack Goldstones Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World (Mahooney 2000). However within comparative education they are some researchers who prefer to adopt the qualitative comparative approach, and therefore insist that this method is applied. They prefer this method because they opine that it will eliminate the inadequacies that are associated with the quantitative approach to comparative education. Qualitative investigators within the field of comparative education also view that there is a sound conviction in the significance of traditional, political and societal framework and the opinion that education cannot be unrelated from its indigenous customs. Qualitative investigation is also supported through a great quantity of worldwide numerical statistics, frequently insignificantly engaged devoid of reflection of impending preconceptions. And also by means of elements of investigation contrasted which not only include native circumstances and societal difference, with consideration to the enquiry of the objectivity or importance of the investigators un dertaking. The qualitative comparative investigators in education focus on the necessitatity to the immensely prospective for partiality and difficult conjectures when investigators act externally from their personal intellectual circumstances. They opine that effort ought to be present in order to become cognisant of such partialities and furthermore to enquiry individual postulations although attempting to comprehend the postulations fundamental to the nations and traditions which are aims of investigations. An example of the use of the qualitative comparative approach in education is Margaret Archers (1979) as noted in Green (1990) study on The Social Origins of Education Systems. Her study was conducted in Russia, England, France and Denmark. This research was also the basis for Green (1990) study on Education and State Formation. Another example is Ramierz and Boli (1987) study on The political Construction of Mass Schooling: European Origins and Worldwide Institutionalization Mixed Methods Combing the qualitative and quantitative approaches to the comparative approach is beneficial when considering the many advantages and disadvantages t

The Rubber Tree (Hevea brasiliensis) :: botany

The Rubber Tree (Hevea brasiliensis) Rubber is a valuable commodity in today's economy. A vast number of products are made from it, including washers, gloves, gaskets, tubing, waterproof clothing, toys, erasers, belts, elastics, bottle stoppers, and insulation for electrical wiring. The largest single use of rubber is in the manufacture of pneumatic tires which consumes 60% to 70% of the total world production each year. Demand for rubber has grown remarkably since the beginning of the industrial revolution. It is one species, Hevea brasiliensis, which makes up 99% of the world's natural rubber production. In 1989 that production was worth an estimated 4 billion dollars. Hevea brasiliensis (the para rubber tree) is a South American native that can grow to a height of 150 feet. The trees have a smooth bark and palmately compound leaves. They are monoecious and have small inconspicuous flowers. The seeds are akin to castor beans. On ripening, the fruit capsule explodes and propels the seeds away from the tree. Hevea brasiliensis is a member of the family Euphorbiaceae (the spurge family). Euphorbiaceae is a diverse family with approximately 290 genera and 7,500 species. Within the family, there are herbs, shrubs, trees, and fleshy cactus-like species. Some plants from this family are used for their medicinal properties and edible parts. Others are used simply as ornamentals. While there are many useful plants in the family Euphorbiaceae, the sweet and bitter cassava plants (Manihot dulcis and Manihot esculenta), as well as the castor oil plant (Ricinus communis), are of greatest economic importance. Latex bearing plants are found in some 20 botanical families. The most prominent families include Sapotaceae, Moraceae, Compositae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. In total there are about 18,000 species of latex-producing plants. Yet, only a few species are currently exploited. Commercially useful rubber-producing species include Hevea benthamiana (Para rubber), Hevea guianensus (Para rubber), Manihot glaziovii (Ceara rubber), Manihot dichotoma (Jeque rubber), Castilla elastica (Panama rubber), Ficus elastica (India rubber), Funtimia elastica (Lagos rubber), Landolphia kirkii (Landolphia rubber), Landolphia gentilli (Landolphia or Madagascar rubber), Landolphia heudelotii (Landolphia or Madagascar rubber), Landolphia owariensis (Landolphia or Madagascar rubber), Crytostegia grandiflora (Madagascar rubber), Crytostegia madagascariansis (Madagascar rubber), Parthenium argentatum (Guayule), Taraxacum kok-saghyz (Russian dandelion), Taraxacum megalorhizon (Russian dandelion), Palaquim gutta (Gutta percha), Manilkara bidentata (Balata), and Manilkara zapata (Chicle). Depending on the species of plant, the latex may be found in a number of locations. It may be within the cells or intercellular spaces of the roots, stems, or leaves of the plant.

Water Pollution Contamination

POLLUTION INTRODUCTION Pollution is the act of environmental humiliation and contamination with artificial waste. Air, water, and soil pollution is a serious complication, which affects everyone in the world. Some of the main causes of pollution is the lack of laws to new industries as well as a poorly educated society. Due to environmental pollution, the society has put pressure on the government to create and carry out diverse policies to the control of environmental pollutants. LAND POLLUTIONLand pollution is the deposition of waste materials be it liquid or solid state either underground or the land that could pollute the natural resources like the soil, underground water. Land pollution also threatens public health and is the root of further Causes: land pollution takes place when unwanted materials of all kinds like garbage, rubbish and trash from different places are disposed to the land. Materials consist of moist food, paper, and glass, plastic, Etc. Also material such as ce ment, metals, rubble concrete are buried in the ground. Furthermore, factories eliminate hazardous chemicals and liquids into the grounds.Contaminated effluent from subsurface sewage disposal can also be a cause of land pollution. Garbage left in open dumps often has breeding of animals such as rats, cockroaches, mosquitoes and other disease carriers. They also root the cause of bad smell, windblown debris and other irritants. Windblown debris could cause contamination of lakes, rivers or wells nearby leaving more room for diseases. Methane, a hazardous gas is given out by decomposing garbage. Misusing of land like deforestation and use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers further pollute the land Effects: Climate: Due to land pollution, the forest cover on earth is decreasing which affects the climate. This results in less rain which leads to fewer pure water resources. Therefore, all living things: the flora and the fauna that rely on fresh water for life are affected. Land poll ution also leads to acid rains, greenhouse effect and global warming. †¢Extinction: Land pollution leads to deforestation resulting in many species losing their habitat which is one of the main causes of extinction. †¢Bio magnification: this process takes place when a particular non-biodegradable substance accumulates in the food chain.This puts not only the specie consuming it in danger, but all the species connected to the food chain. Overall results in affecting the food pyramid †¢Biodiversity: extinction will result in unbalanced and disturbed biodiversity. For example, if a species goes extinct the specie it feeds on will see a number of increase.! WAYS TO REDUCE LAND POLLUTION: †¢Reduce Product packaging: as the consumer market grows, more elaborate and fine packaging is used. This increases the waste produced every year and leads to further land pollution. A way companies have started to go green is make reusable and recycled packaging that attracts the co nsumers. Recycle: Using materials that are recycled. Stop wasting paper and using recycled paper. Give away old books and newspapers to recycle companies. Avoid using materials such as plastic. Recycling helps in reducing the amount of waste dumped in dump fills. Cans and metals could be recycled. †¢Composting: According to scientists, it takes about a decade for a land fill to decompose. Composting helps in decomposition due to its design which helps in flow of air. Yard trimmings and food that are decomposed help in reducing the land pollution AIR POLLUTIONAir pollution is one of the major problems that our planet is suffering from , its affecting our daily life without our notice as its content of poisonous gases and acid rain and many other gases from the burned fossil fuel and transportation and industries, we inhale without our notice it may damage our lungs and affects our health. Air pollution is defined as â€Å" the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or b iological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere. (wikipedia, 2012) Causes of air pollution:- The causes of air pollution are many like as I previously mentioned, it could be because of the burning of fussel fuels such as gasoline , oil, coal and natural gas, the daily usage of electricity , the exhaust gas of cars and vehicles specially and not to forget the main natural cause of air pollution is dust. â€Å"We also cause air pollution indirectly, when we buy goods and services that use energy in their production and delivery. (Air pollution, 2011) The pollutents are those substances which causes the air pollution , it could be gases, liquid droplets or solid substances sometimes like lead and mercury. I’ll mention some important primary pollutants which are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and sulphur oxides . -Sulpher oxides: usually obtained from the industries and is widely spread in paper manufacture industries and combine with rain droplets and produces acid rain , alsoâ€Å" is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. â€Å"(Wikipedia, 2012) -Nitrogen oxides: the main source of nitrogen oxides are cars and vehicles. nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion, and are also produced naturally during thunderstorms by electrical discharge† (wikipedia, 2012) -Carbon dioxide: â€Å"a colorless, odorless, non-toxic greenhouse gas also associated with ocean acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and respiration. † (wikipedia, 2012) -Carbon monoxide: caused in the burning of coal, fossil fuels and wood , it’sâ€Å" a colorless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood.Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide. † (wikipedi a, 2012) Effects of air pollution:- Air pollution causes a lot problems and has a lot of impact on us as humans , talking about its effects I will mention three major point to discuss, ‘ the effects of air pollution on our health, enviroment and ecominc life. First, talking about the effect of it on our health, the enhaling of these gases is very harmful and poisonious as it causes permenant damage to the lungs , it also affects the brain and the nervious system and makes us suffer from breathing problems and respiratory illness.Carbon Monoxide is considered as the most dangerous gas , because it â€Å"Reduces ability of blood to bring oxygen to body cells and tissues. † (Air pollution, 2011) . Sulphur oxides when combined with the rain droplets , it forms acid rain which â€Å"causes buildings, statues, and monuments to deteriorate. † (Air pollution, 2011) these gases when enhaled into the human body it can cause a lot of damage and may lead to serious situation s and could cause death sometimes, therefor we need to be careful and not to expose our bodies to such gases.Second, the effects of air pollution on our environment, it may lead to the melting of the polar ice caps, can affect the weather distractions which leads to tornadoes , floods , hurricanes and droughts. In addition to that it causes an increase in the sea level . also, it affects the environment in an indirect way through the spread of new diseases which can be hardly cured and it affects the agriculture which is mostly our source of food. Moreover, acid rain can damage buildings, forests, soil, lakes and it affects the aquatic life.Finally, its effect on the economy, it has an impacts in relation to its effect on the human health and the environment. WATER POLLUTION Contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater is called water pollution. Water pollution takes place when pollutants are dumped or discharged into these water bodies. Water pollution l eads to the sea life and other living organisms depending on them in danger due to the contaminated water hazardous nature. Biological communities are affected due to water pollution and it keeps growing every yearCAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION Water pollution is one kind of most dangers pollution it contamination the of water bodies (e. g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies that will kills the marine life and oceans. It comes from factory wastes, sewer systems and oil spills that cause harmful effects in all environments because water is a very necessary for animals and human life (causes of water pollution, 2006). SIDE EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTIONThere are many side effects that water pollution like killing marine life, spreading diseases in human and animal by contamination of heavy metals and harmful bacteria. it kills green areas like forests and farms by using Pesticides that contaminant ground water which feed plants also it same in sewer system that goes in ground or goes in seas and rivers. the most common thing is oil and lubrication liquids , because of increasing using and west that comes from it, it effect the water environment directly by get rid of it in sea or in ground (Jeantheau, 2005) MEASURES THAT COULD BE TAKENThere are many ways to reduce the pollution in water like recital the old lubrications and avoid throwing it in ground or water surfaces. Also we can use things that not effects the water by reduce the pesticide in farms. Making shipment of oil ship more safety by develop the safety system in transferring of oil and chemical products also repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment (Control of pollution, 2006). Survey A survey was conducted by the group members on 50 students from Abu Dhabi Al Ain Campus, both male and female.The following were the results collected: †¢All 50 students knew about different kin ds of pollution †¢48 students thought immediate measure was required to stop pollution †¢41 students admitted to have polluted in one way or other (either land, air or water) †¢33 students said they would be a part of â€Å"going green† †¢29 students thought pollution is a problem in UAE Conclusion All in all, pollution of any kind, be it land, water, or air is dangerous and Is affecting the earth and species living on it in harmful ways.It increases every year and the toll gets higher. We as humans have the duty to save our planet for a better tomorrow. Different awareness campaigns and drives could be carried out to promote the dangerous effects of pollution. â€Å"Going green† should be focused on and living healthy should be promoted. The changes will not take place overnight but we all can start from now. Bibliography Air Pollution. (2012). Retrieved from en. wikipedia. org/: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Air_pollution Land Pollution. 2012). R etrieved from en. wikipedia. org: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Land_pollution Nathanson, J. A. (2012). Land Pollution. Retrieved from www. britannica. com: http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/329175/land-pollution Pillai, P. (2012, january 16). Causes and Effects of Land Pollution. Retrieved from /www. buzzle. com: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/causes-and-effects-of-land-pollution. html Ryan, D. B. (2010, july 03). WAYS TO OVERCOME LAND POLLUTION. Retrieved from www. ivestrong. com: http://www. livestrong. com/article/164542-ways-to-overcome-land-pollution/ causes of water pollution. (2006, 4 19). Retrieved 5 22, 2012, from http://en. wikipedia. org: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Water_pollution#Causes Control of pollution. (2006, 4 19). Retrieved 5 22, 2012, from http://en. wikipedia. org: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Water_pollution#Control_of_pollution Jeantheau, M. (2005, 9 6). side effect of water pollution. Retrieved from http://www. grinnin

Book Borrowing System Essay

Introduction Manual systems in libraries were used in the 1970s and early 1980s until computers became more prevalent and less costly. Manual systems tended to operate with a card index to monitor the books that borrowers had out. Libraries also used a manual card catalog system for indexing and tracking books. Manual operating systems are vulnerable to human error. For instance, a librarian who misfiles a borrower’s records or indexes a book incorrectly slows down the process and wastes employees’ time. Manual systems are also slow to operate. Instead of using a computer to issue and take back books, locating and updating a card index is slow and laborious. Manual systems are unable to store large amounts of data efficiently. With manual systems staff spends a lot of their time on mechanical, clerical tasks rather than liaising with library visitors. User’s Description Most likely the one that who will use the system are students, and teachers that has no time in going System Description Library Management System is a multi-user version and can take care of all the fundamental functions of a Library like borrowing books, searching for books and checking the books. It can satisfactorily cater to all the basic functions of a small library. A simple library management system that provides following facilities login, register, add Category, add / remove book, search / issue Book, return book. Library system keeps track of all the transaction that takes place in the library. Starting from book transaction to financial transaction. Purpose and Objectives The Purpose and Objectives of the project is to create a library management system which sorts the administrators, staffs and students separately. It empowers each with different levels of privileges. Users and administrators are allowed to search and lend/take books from the library. It also sorts the items in the library and lets administrator to monitor items/members and also generate graphical reports for them. Scope and Limitation Any education institute can make use of it for providing information about author, content of the available books. It can be used in offices and modifications can be easily done according to requirements. System’s Features < Only basic knowledge of computers is required for operating of Library Management System. As it has a user-friendly application interface. < An inbuilt Settings module makes Library Management System flexibility to cater to diverse organizational needs. < Keeps records of supplier’s and binder’s < Staff as well as student record is maintained ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM CONTEXT DIAGRAM USE CASE DIAGRAM USE CASE SPECIFICATION: login 1. Brief Description To interact with the system, LMS will validate its registration with this system. It also defines the actions a user can perform in LMS. 2. Flow of Events 1. Basic Flow The use case begins when the actor types his/her name and password on the login form. 1. The system displays the Main Form and the use case ends. 2. Alternative Flow(s) 1. Invalid username and/or password If the user enters an invalid username and/or password, the system displays an error message. The user can choose to either return to the beginning of the Basic Flow or cancel the login, at which the use case ends. 3. Pre Conditions None 4. Post Conditions If the use case is successful, the user can now log into the system. If not the system is unchanged. USE CASE SPECIFICATION: Search Books 1. Brief Description Search Books makes it easy to search for article on LMS. With this search companion, user can specify several search criteria. For example, type, book name, author name, publisher etc. 2. Flow of Events 1. Basic Flow The use case starts when the user/borrower wants to search what books he/she is looking for. 1. System will show searching screen. 2. User enters required information. a. It can be user name, book description ISBN etc. 3. By pressing search button system will list down all searching results. 2. Alternative Flow(s) 2. 2. 1. The User enters a invalid keywords. The system will display an error message. The user may choose to re enter the keyword or cancel the search. 3. Pre Conditions Actor must login to the system. 4. Post Conditions If the use case is successful the user can now view the desired results. If not the system displays an error. USE CASE SPECIFICATION: Manage Borrower 1. Brief Description From this use case the Librarian can manage Borrowers. 2. Flow of Events 2. 1. Basic Flow The use case starts when the Librarian checks the borrowers in the borrowing system. 1. The system will show the entire registered user in the system. 2. Librarian will select any user; system will list down all information of a current user. 1. Alternative Flow(s) 2. 2. 1. The actor enters a invalid name of the borrower. The system will display an error message. The Actor may choose to re enter the keyword or cancel the search. 2. Pre Conditions Librarian must login to the system. 3. Post Conditions If the use case is successful the actor can now manage the members in the system, if not the system is unchanged USE CASE SPECIFICATION: Manage Books 1. Brief Description Books have different details; Inquiry Books is used to inquiry all books or articles in the system, it also gives details of its transaction history, and current status. 2. Flow of Events 2. 1. Basic Flow The use case starts when the user will manage books or articles. 2. 1. 1. User enters the required information. 2. 1. 2. It can be author’s name, ISBN of the book, Label, Number of books available. By pressing the search button system will list down all searching results. 2. 2. Alternative Flow(s) 2. 2. 1. The user enters invalid information about the book. The system will display an error message, the user chooses to cancel or Repeat the search. 3. Pre Conditions The Actor must login to the system. 4. Post Conditions If the use case is successful the user can now view his/her desired results, if not the system is unchanged. USE CASE SPECIFICATION: Manage Borrowed Books 1. Brief Description  System will show members current issued books, transaction history and their deadlines. 2. Flow of Events 2. 1. Basic Flow The use case starts when the actor will check the Books Borrowed in the system. 2. 1. 1. The system will display all user history. 2. 2. Alternative Flow(s) 2. 2. 1. The user enters invalid information. The system will display an error message, the user will choose to cancel or repeat the information that he/she entered. 3. Pre Conditions The user must login to the system. 4. Post Conditions If the use case is successful the user can now view his/her desired results, if not the system is unchanged. ACTIVITY DIAGRAM: